DEATH AND THE AFTERLIFE IN THE OLD TESTEMENT
Being a Christian that lives today, now having the New Testament and the Good News that it proclaims, how should we view the Old Testament concept death and the afterlife? Ancient Israel had little concept of a life after death or eternity spent with God. They just accepted that they did not know what happened after death, but it is apparent they believed one ceased to live and went to the grave or “Sheol.” The issue of death and the afterlife in the Old Testament is complex and more emphasis was given to life in the here and now. Death was viewed as a shadowy existence and the idea of a resurrection, found in Daniel, is commonly viewed among scholars as a late innovation that was influenced by foreign influences. Others believe that the concept was not adapted from foreign influences but rather has its roots in earlier Old Testament faith. It is not uncommon to hear some Christians question how the Israelites could believed in God since they had no idea of a future life. Roland Murphy in his book, The Gift of the Psalms, says, “This kind of reaction reveals how much Christians need to integrate the OT understanding of God and of life, if they would appreciate what the NT offers them. Belief means accepting God on God’s terms, as they are revealed.”
Concept of Death
Hebrew literature does not hide a sense of death’s power nor does it separate death from life as though it did not exist. Death is accepted and seen as the normal end of life. A good death is portrayed when an individual dies with sufficient offspring and at an old age. When it comes to asking the question of the origin of death, there seems to be little concern as well. The questioning for Israel focused more on how to understand the invasion of death into life. In contrast to the surrounding nation’s polytheistic view of life and death, this invasion was not articulated through speaking of divine powers which were threatening Yahweh and with whom battle must be done (ABD, “Death,” 2:109). Yahweh was seen as the ultimate source of life and death. In the Israelites mind, it was not possible to place the blame on competing divine forces. Although the Israelites did not have this polytheistic view, they certainly used the images from Canaanite mythology to represent Yahweh’s power over chaos and death. A great example of this imagery can be found in the book of Job when God is seen as in control of leviathan (Job 41). Yahweh was known to give or take away life (2 Kings 20:1-11). Life was dependent upon Yahweh whether one looked at this from an individual or communal perspective. Life in the here and now was of far more concern to the Israelites. The most prominent theme for Israel when talking about life and death was that life provided an opportunity for the individual and community to praise Yahweh. Praise of God was the sign of life. The inability to praise was a signal of death, even in life. The Hebrew Bible is abounding with the idea that death consists of silence and that the major characteristic of life is to praise Yahweh (ABD, “Death,” 2:109). The images of the underworld, or Sheol, as the space apart from Yahweh, assisted in the depiction of life. Death appears as a parallel to Sheol whether it is metaphorically speaking of death in the present life or death at the end of the physical life.
The attitude towards Death in the Old Testament can be seen as viewed with fear, anger and hostility. The most beautifully crafted text on the fear of death can be found in Ecclesiastics. Qoheleth seems to be very concerned with his own death. Some view his writing as a deep sense of fear brought before this reality of death. Others argue that although he may fear death, he is just simply expressing acceptance of his inevitable fate. However, the dominate attitudes towards death in the wisdom literature are anger and hostility as found in Psalm 6 and 102. Proverbs presents another view of life and death and relates them both to wisdom. The possession of wisdom is identified with life. When wisdom gives her speech in Proverbs 8 she says, “For whoever finds me finds life and receives favor from the Lord, but whoever fails to find me harms himself; all who hate me love death” (Prov. 8:35-36). Compared to Ecclesiastics, death in Proverbs is portrayed not to be feared because it is understood as a natural part of existence. Dying is understood as a negative way of living. It is a mode of living against the way of life as seen in the depiction and warning of the son not to get entangled with the “strange woman” or “wayward wife” (Prov. 2:19). Although the thought of death sometimes produced feelings of fear and anger, there were conditions when it was seen as an acceptable occurrence. First, death had to come at the end of a long life (Job 42:17). Second, the deceased had to leave behind descendants. Finally, funeral rites and the proper burial of the corpse had to be strictly observed (ABD, “Resurrection,” 5:683).
Sheol
The Old Testament books of wisdom literature reflect, for the most part, the standard Israelite perspective that there is no meaningful existence beyond death. However, there are a few passages that give the hope in some form of continued communion with God, which is later developed in the rest of the Old Testament in books such as Daniel and Isaiah. The traditional Israelite view is that death leads to a shadowy, insubstantial existence in the underworld called Sheol (ABD, “Dead, Abode of the,” 2:102).
There are many passages throughout the wisdom literature that reflect the idea of Sheol such as, “In death there is no memory of you; in Sheol who will praise you?” (Ps 6:5). Sheol is found to be the most common word used n the Hebrew Bible to refer to the abode of the dead, occurring approximately 66 times. Thirty-four times Sheol refers to human destiny, twenty-five it is linked directly with the fate of the ungodly. In seven passages the righteous contemplate descent into Sheol, though these are generally in times of crisis. This term is also used in the New Testament several times as the word Hades, most commonly translated to Sheol in the LXX. Hades shares many of the physical characteristics of Sheol and can be understood as the underworld. Sheol is typically depicted as a place to which one “goes down” and represent the lowest place imaginable. This word is often used in contrast with the highest heavens as found in Job 11:8.
The concept of Sheol is much like the description of the underworld found in Egyptian and Mesopotamian literature, but in comparison, few descriptive details have been found of Sheol (ABD, “Dead, Abode of the,” 2:102). The gates of Sheol are mentioned several times n the Hebrew Bible; one example being Job 38:17. This can be compared with the gates and gatekeepers found in the Egyptian and Mesopotamian conceptions of the netherworld. Bars and gates have to do with the Israelite view of the imprisoning power of Sheol and its impassable nature that prevents escape. Sheol, like Death, is described in the Hebrew Bible as having an insatiable appetite as seen in Prov. 27:20. This view is very closely related with the Canaanite’s deity Mot, who is associated with the underworld and also has a great appetite (ABD, “Dead, Abode of the,” 2:102). Later in the Old Testament, Isaiah plays on this imagery and turns the tables by having Yahweh swallow up Death forever. The term Sheol in the Wisdom literature was understood by the Jews as a place for the wicked or ungodly. It was also associated as a place where those that die an early death would find themselves. However, there are two passages which seem to point to Sheol as a universal destiny: Psalm 89:48 and Ecclesiastes 9:10. Sheol is further characterized as a place where there is no reward, and no knowledge or wisdom (Eccl. 9:10); and from which there is no return (Job 7:9; cf. 2 Sam. 12:23; Isa. 26:13–14). As such, Sheol is viewed as unwelcome and threatening. It does not offer hope for life after death or a basis for continued fellowship with God; and it is easy to see why an alternative view of the destination of the dead, especially of faithful Jewish martyrs, was considered desirable in later Old Testament times.
When reading through the Old Testament, one could easily assume that Sheol was the place where all the dead, both righteous (Jacob and Samuel being examples) and ungodly, eventually reside. For Ecclesiastics, stating that all human beings go to Sheol can be seen as a part of the overall tone of the book with an over exaggeration on the meaninglessness of human existence. On the other hand, there are other passages that suggest Sheol as the place for the wicked only. The latter view is most commonly used throughout the wisdom literature and the rest of the Old Testament. Thus, one can conclude that there is no evidence for the idea that Sheol is the permanent resting place for the righteous or all humanity. If it was in fact the destiny of all humanity, there would seem to be no point in largely cosigning Sheol as a place for the wicked and those under the judgment of God. Sheol is also often associated with those that die an untimely death or “evil death,” compared to the common fate of all humans. Comparatively, a natural death is associated with unification with kin and Sheol is never mentioned in this context.
Some questions have been raised to whether or not those who resided in Sheol could be consulted through necromancy and if it was indeed practiced by the Israelites. It is commonly known that such practices were expressly forbidden as seen in Deut. 18:11. Although it was forbidden, one can see that there are instances where a few Israelites did practice consulting with the dead (1 Sam. 28). There is abundant evidence for cults of the dead in the pagan world that surrounded Israel. Although this practice surrounded Israel, there is no clear evidence for a cult of the dead among the Israelites. However, there can be no question that many of the elements associated with the cult of the dead are found in the Bible such as laments, periods of mourning, acquisitions of tombs along with the erection of monuments and memorial stones (ABD, “Dead, Cult of the,” 2:106). For example, the cave at Mechpelah was originally purchased as a burial place for Sarah (Gen. 23:4). It also eventually became the grave of Abraham, then of Isaac and Jacob, along with Rebecca and Leah. It is mentioned in the Bible that the site is still a shrine for the children of Abraham in Hebron to this day. Such ongoing practice of visiting a tomb indicates that the Israelites continued to share many of the cultural and social assumptions of the Canaanites when it came to honoring the dead (ABD, “Dead, Cult of the,” 2:106). In other places one can see that the Israelites blatantly adopted the practices of Canaanites in disobedience to God. An example of this can be seen in Judges 17:5 when Micah had a shrine and made an ephod, later installing one of his sons as his priest. Several passages also speak about someone who has died as being “gathered to his people” (Gen 25:8). This may relate to joining ancestors in the afterlife, which could not be in Sheol since it is associated with isolation. This could indicate a belief in an alternative destination for the righteous but as said before, this idea is not clearly stated. Even though some Israelites practiced communing with the dead, Yahwism opposed these cult centers because private, family shrines threatened the Deuteronomic ideal of one God worshipped in the temple in Jerusalem. In the Exile, when the nation was at an all time low, the practice of consulting the dead was seen as morally offensive and was addressed more forcefully. Memorials and tombs were announced as unnecessary for the righteous dead, whose deeds would be memorial enough, while the wicked would “have no reward, but the memory of them is lost” (Eccl. 9:5).
The Israelites portrayed a heavy emphasis on living a long life as a sign of being blessed by God. Living a full life and being able to have many descendents to carry on the family name and family line was very important. To the ancient Israelite this was thought of more than the afterlife. Those who died in this way did not need their personal existence to be prolonged beyond the grave. As the Old Testament writers looked forward to the coming of God’s Kingdom, their main concern appears to be focused on what would happen to the community. It was understood that individuals might not survive to participate personally in Israel’s future glory, but because they saw themselves as being vitally linked to the community, the continued survival of the nation became their hope.
It can be seen that Sheol promised no hope for an afterlife but just a resting place for the dead. Some traces of the view of an actual afterlife can be found in the wisdom literature and is slowly developed throughout the rest of the Old Testament. As mentioned before, this view was especially popular during and after the Exile. Although hope for an afterlife was developed in later times and is said to be influenced by surrounding nations, there was little if any vision of an afterlife in Israel in the earlier Old Testament era. It is almost unanimously agreed that the country’s “healthy materialism” and “healthy eroticism” required it “to examine the meaning of man’s earthly existence to a degree and to a depth seemingly without parallel in the thinking of its contemporaries” (ABD, “Death,” 2:109).
The Old Testament writers encourage God’s people to seek knowing God’s presence and blessing now, rather than in the hereafter. The desire is for such a life to be long and fulfilled, avoiding the possibility of an untimely or unfortunate descent into Sheol. When reading through the wisdom literature, one can see that Israel is more attached to life and in no way dreams of a marvelous life hereafter. Human existence is viewed as a divine gift. The concept that life is the greatest gift and should be enjoyed as a gift from God is a major theme in Ecclesiastics. Death in the Israelite mind is only seen as something that comes to disturb life. In general, the person of the Old Testament was comfortable with the thought that they would not see immortality. They recognized and accepted that life returned to God who had loaned it in the first place. An example of this kind of thought would be, “when you take away their breath, they die and return to the dust. When you send you’re your Spirit, they are created” (Ps. 104:29-30).
Development of Afterlife
The longing for an alternative to Sheol was satisfied in time, in the doctrine of resurrection set out in Daniel 12:1-3, which is seen now, not as something entirely new, but the clearer articulation of a hope that is rooted in Israel’s confidence in the justice of God and in his power to preserve his faithful people even from the threat of death. Even though there are traces of an alternative hope besides Sheol in the Old Testament, they are rare and dissimilar. The emphasis on a life after death started in Hosea’s time period and scholars mention that it was influenced by a Canaanite context. Between Hosea and Daniel, the resurrection idea was mentioned here and there, but it was mainly to point toward the political renewal of the people of Israel. If a resurrection was in the mind of Israel, it seems that the breath or spirit of life would have to return to its creator and then return back to the individual at a later time (1 Kings 17:21-22). The concept of the human existence was also different during Israel’s time than in our own. It was believed that the human being was composed of body and soul (breath). The person was not constituted of a perishable element, which would be our understanding of the flesh, and of an immaterial reality endowed with immortality, which we would call the soul (ABD, “Resurrection,” 5:684). Life ceased at the very moment when the breath loaned by God was taken back. This thought can be seen when Qoheleth says, “and the dust returns to the ground it came from, and the spirit returns to God who gave it” (Ecc. 12:7). For Israel, there could be no victory over death unless a complete renewal of the human being was to occur. Also, it was believed that death could lose some of its sting if a person left behind a son or was buried in the tomb of his ancestors. It was accepted that the Israelite died, but through the continuation of the family line, Israel as a whole was preserved and continued to live.
Little by little, as the nation of Israel faced hardships and persecution, people began to ask about the fate of the faithful and the ultimate future that was prepared for him or her. While the faithful faced harsh persecution, the Yahwistic cause began to seem a lost one to the people. The doctrine of a resurrection is argued by some scholars as a reaction and fruit of the Jewish resistance to the Hellenistic world (ABD, “Resurrection,” 5:684). It is commonly accepted that the idea of a resurrection in the Old Testament was the result of external influences that came into play in various ways over the course of the history of Israel. Although this doctrine may have been influenced by external influences, the concept can be seen as being birthed out of an understanding of Yahweh’s character. The Old Testament largely proclaims Yahweh’s power and sovereignty, especially in Job. God is seen as the master of life and death. The remembrance of God’s character was called into play when the faithful people of Israel began to ask questions about life after death, namely his justice and faithfulness. The resurrection of the dead allowed God’s character to be displayed as one who was faithful to his servants, even beyond death. The doctrine also affirmed his power and control over death. The Jews began to assert that physical death does not nullify God’s justice nor cancel his covenantal relationship with individuals. Psalms 16 is an example of a text that points in this direction. Also, the idea that God will one day overcome death forever gave hope to the faithful and magnified His justice and power. Thus, the development and belief in the resurrection of the dead was based on Yahweh’s power, justice and love (ABD, “Resurrection,” 5:684).
Final Statement
After looking at death, life and the concept of an afterlife in the Old Testament, one can better appreciate and praise the view of the afterlife that is presented in the New Testament. The New Testament speaks of God alone as immortal, contrasting humans as only mortals which is evidence by their death and promise of a future gift of immortality. 1 Corinthians shows a prime example of the mortality of humans with the promise of immortality in the future, “For the perishable must clothe itself with the imperishable, and the mortal with the immortality” (1 Cor. 15:53). The New Testament is clear that death was not a part of God’s original plan for the human race (Rom. 6:23; 1 Cor. 15:21). Christ’s death is seen as destroying the one who hold the power of death and as now having the keys to death and Hades. Death is now viewed in the light of the resurrection of Jesus. He is seen as the first from the dead. Death does not separate us from Christ (Rom. 8:38-39). As in the Old Testament, one can experience a living death in the New Testament as well. One can be dead in sin and pass from death into life when encountering Christ in this life. The New Testament depicts eternal life as given now, but not in fullness. The tension between the already and the not yet is seen clearly and “The last enemy to be destroyed is death” (1 Cor. 15:26). Only by understanding the Old Testament concept of the afterlife and reverence they had for God as in control of both life and death, can one begin to fully appreciate the eternal life that is offered in the New Testament. In his Letters and Papers from Prison,
Dietrich Bonheoffer expresses this understanding:
My thoughts and feelings seem to be getting more and more like those of the Old Testament, and in recent months I have been reading the Old Testament much more than the new. It is only when one knows the unutterability of the name of God that one can utter the name of Jesus Christ; it is only when one love life and the earth so much that without them everything seems to be over that one can believe in the resurrection and new world…
After understanding Israel’s perspective of death and the afterlife through reading the wisdom literature and the rest of the Old Testament, one can see how it presents a refreshing emphasis and appreciation of the present life. Throughout the ages, the emphasis has undergone a turn from focusing on the life here and now to a greater preoccupation with the afterlife and an eternity spent with God. As a Christian today, one can learn from the mindset of the ancient Israelites and begin to not only thank God for the gift eternal life with Him, but also stand in awe and receive the gift of life with gladness.
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